1. INTRODUCTION
During the official apartheid that began in 1948 it was implied that everything in the nation belonged to the white people, even the national cinema. When the nation transitioned into democracy and became The Republic of South Africa as we know it today there was hope that it would mean liberation for cinema as well. But since the new National Film and Video Foundation (NFVF) took over in 1999 (Botha, 2007: 34) it has been clear that there would be many road blocks on the road to the creation of a new national cinema; but the goal was not abandoned because of how important cinema is for the defining of individual as well as national identity and because film had been used as a tool of oppression for so long. This essay will attempt a critical discussion of the platform Post-Apartheid South Africa has offered to filmmakers using two examples on either side of the 1994 election, namely Mapantsula (1988) and Happiness Is A Four Letter Word (2016), as case studies to elaborate on specific issues. The discussion will first give an overview of the two films and the briefly interrogate how their respective historical contexts affected their production and reception before looking at how the perceived South African authenticity of the two films demonstrates what effect that has, what was possible then and what is possible now in terms of affecting culture and making national heroes, the essay will then look at key elements of the film industry to see what kind of platform/reality the state of stories, funding, and exhibition present to filmmakers in the post-apartheid era to see if it is possible that the slow growth of the industry may perhaps accelerate in future because of digital technology.
2. SYNOPSES
2.1.Synopsis: Mapantsula (1988)
Panic a petty criminal living in Apartheid Johannesburg is arrested for being at a rent protest, ending up in prison with UDF freedom fighters. Having been a police informant in the past he is pressured to give up the anti-apartheid activists that are in prison with him. Panic must try and stand up to the torture and intimidation of the police officers in an attempt to figure out his own morals and go home with his dignity or not at all.
2.2.Synopsis: Happinness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016)
Nandi a young upwardly mobile corporate lawyer is six months away from her wedding with Thomas When she starts to have second thoughts. She begins seeing her ex Chris again, at first perforce and only for work, but eventually she begins an affair with Chris. She soon starts to have mixed feelings about Chris and what she should do with her future. With the pressure of her new position, her friends’ (Zazi & Princess) advice to consider and the wedding date on its way Nandi must figure out what she wants for her future before it all comes crashing down.
3. HISTORICAL CONTEXT (1988-2016)
The two films at the centre of this discussion were made at two very times and there have been significant changes to the South African society, political situation and film industry between 1988 and 2016. The contexts that each of these films was made in helped shape the film and the reaction to them.
3.1.It Was Acceptable In The 80s
Mapantsula (1988) was made almost 30 years ago during apartheid. The film was part of an independent filmmaking revival in the 80s which produced several progressive films that were not seen by many South Africans according to Botha (1995: 4) who also described these films as showing the realities of most South African lives. The Apartheid government had a national censor which controlled what was published (Botha, 1995: 6), it had the power to either severely limit or outright ban films (with Mapantsula (1988) it was more of the former). The era was so tense that the New York Times even said it’s a film about a young man’s radicalisation (Maslin, 1988: 1), the freedom fighters were still the bad guy in the media. The film came out during a period from the mid to late eighties during which South Africa’s film industry became a tax haven where filmmaking (mostly foreign) became more profitable. According to Maingard (2007: 7). The film was made during the last days of apartheid when the hegemony of the system was on the brink of falling apart and the townships (and black populace in general) had begun going into crisis and was quite organised since the founding of the UDF in 1983 (Modisane, 2010: 152) the struggle had long since turned violent and the country was to be ungovernable, all was acceptable in the 80s if it was against the apartheid government. The LA times described the film as an attack on Apartheid and the filmmakers sought the approval of the banned ANC whilst making the film to legitimise it as a struggle film (Modisane, 2010: 148) so it is clear that without Apartheid the film would not exist as it does. A contemporary commentator remembering the film noted however that the film is more about the lives of everyday south Africans during the struggle and the kinds of lives they lived making it much more of a human film (City Press, 2013: 16), The LA times did also note that it was a film about the everyman( Wilmington, 1989: 7). The film was funded by the South African government but under false pretences and so it was bound to be banned, the (German) director did not expect the film to do so well and screen overseas but it ended up screening in 50 countries and it was also used by those in the struggle movement to help unify and motivate their ranks (Botha, 1995:6). All the films had to do to be a protest films was show the real lives of black people because that had rarely been done at that stage; the film was only available on video but the urgency of the battle against apartheid spread the film successfully (Modisane, 2010: 153). Leon Schuster was already making films.
3.2.We’re feeling 22
With Madisa (2016, 1) listing state capture and fees must fall the dominant political topics of the year it is clear that the political situation was both very different and in some eerie ways similar in 2016; the ANC project has run its course (for 22 years) long enough for people to expect progress and maturity from it. In cinema there was a ticket price hike in 2015 by the two major distributors Ster Kinekor and Nu Metro (NFVF, 2015: 3) and the market share for SA films remained low at 6% the local earnings (NFVF, 2015: 2). Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016), of course, largely avoids political issues But Khanyi Mbau (Helena Spring Films, 2016) expressed her happiness with the fact that the film does not deal with these issues because it is not just politics and poverty that is experienced in South Africa there are also people living their lives and very successful women. Gangster films were popular when Mapantsula (1988) came out but contemporary audiences are according Blignau (2016: 15) tired of both gangster films and dreary tales of Apartheid. Film production has dropped from 170 features in 1988 recorded by Botha (1995:8) to the NFVF’s (2015: 2) reported 22 in 2015, this limited production is also mostly Afrikaans films (NFVF, 2015: 13). Filmmakers resort to making light hearted films that appeal to the lowest common denominator of public taste when making features for theatrical release because they are afraid that there will be limited opportunity to make another film if they do not. Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) does not represent a change in approach (it is still clearly designed for maximum commercial impact) but it does represent a change in register/genre (being serious but not stolid or about the serious post-apartheid topics) and an increase in authenticity. The film can therefore be seen as being a watershed in its own way because it earned R5 million in its first ten days (Makhale, 2016: 1) when only 5 films had managed to break that at all in the previous year (NFVF, 2015: 2) and being described by SABC as showing recognizable characters and relationships (SABC Digital News, 2016). As many films have done recently, the Film has achieved success by following a successful novel (in this case it is based on Cynthia Jele’s award winning book) (Engelbrecht, 2016: 2). Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) demonstrates the much more liberal nature of contemporary South African society, it normalises not only successful working women but also homosexuality, pre-marital sex and abortion.
4. REFLECTING SOUTH AFRICANS
The two films this discussion is looking at were both set in Johannesburg and were both noted for showing realistic South African depictions of South African life so there needs to be an understanding of how this South Africanness and urbanity plays a role in shaping these films and their reception.
4.1.The City
There are 70 cinema complexes in South Africa and even the NFVF (2015: 2) admits that they are limited to metropolitan areas so there is a limit to how many people can see films in cinemas but a very successful film like Happiness Is A four-Letter Word (2016) ends up being seen by over 50 000 people (Engelbrecht, 2016: 5) so we do need to treat films in the way that Botha (2007: 33) advised as cultural products as opposed to solely economic entities. Botha (1995:1) had previously stated that film is a tool for the expressing cultures (collective identities) whilst defining of histories and that a film culture was slowly growing in South Africa (Botha, 1995: 7). But given how important Masilela (200: 50) describes cities and their depiction being to the shaping of cultural modernity there needs to time given to how these films depict the city. Kruger (2006: 142) described Johannesburg as an edgy but cosmopolitan city which refuses any neat generic categorisation and further states (Kruger, 2006:147) that cinema has offered a very ambiguous and haunting image of Johannesburg’s urbanity. This is not the case with Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) and I believe that is because of a changing of the national narrative over time. Mapantsula (1988) made when gangster films were still common is categorised as one of the crime stories which portrays newcomers to the city as figures which pretend to be fully urban denizens; this is from a tradition which now expresses itself in urban legends about crime. These are compelling stories about the elusive metropolis (an alien world) and those (usually criminals) who are able to bring it under their control (Kruger, 2006: 148); this image fits panic in a very obvious way because as Modisane (2010:148) pointed out the producers had to pitch a gangster film to get it funded and kept some of the elements in their final film, but it is possible to see also in Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) that the three women (Nandi, Zazi & Princess) have elements of this urban dominator figure. The same way as Panic is among the upper echelon of criminals because he has the grit technique and mercilessness needed (as proven by his winning a knife fight), so too Nandi is the upper echelon of corporate life because she has the best friends, potential partners and work ethic/lawyer skills (as she proves in several scenes as she works extra hours and finesses Chris’ deal). The reason these characters affect culture and have become, as Kruger (2006: 157) described, signatures of the film and television images of the city is because: they define and perform/mirror the values of the audience in a way that allows for audiences to interact with them in what Turner (2004: 22) called para-social relationships. As Turner (2004:24) explained one of the purposes of celebrities (Real or fictional) is that they function as a tool for identity creation (in this case South African Identity) by helping individuals to elaborate on and define themselves and as a set of stereotypes embedded with cultural meaning which are used for colloquial ideological interrogations; given Turner’s explanation of the function and Kruger’s explanation of the form of these characters in society the process in both films can be described as a mirroring/performing of dominant South African ideologies by fictional individuals whose setting and behaviour serve as a demonstration of the public ideals. Bongiwe Selane (SABC Digital News, 2016), the film’s producer, said that the three women have the new South African dream which features money, success and loving partners and this is a direct replacement for what Kruger (2006:150) called the tradition of gangster glamour because it also serves to inform the kinds of morals, lifestyle and self-representation (fashion, cultural identity associations etc.) will define the culture. Because the society is changing and telling many new stories that were previously untold it becomes possible to create the cultural effects of Mapantsula (1988) in new ways with new character types, Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) has proven that this can be successful.
4.2.The Nation
Because both films are as mentioned above touted as showing real ‘South Africa’ lives they have an even more profound effect on local populations, and specifically on how South African they perceive themselves and their values to be. Hall, Held & McGrew (1992: 292) asserted that these representations are along with institutions and symbols what actually make up a national culture. Hall (Hall et al., 1992: 293) felt that the differences between nations lay in the differences in which they were imagined, after the election of the ANC in 1994 (Kruger, 2006: 142) the South African identity was redefined with new institutions, symbols and (eventually) cinematic representations. This reimagining of the South African culture is why Botha (2007: 34) defined post-apartheid cinema as being characterised by new voices and a diversification of themes. This has expressed itself in the explosion of films which were impossible under the conservative, racist Apartheid regime, Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) is not a bad example because it includes neutral to positive images of homosexuality, empowered women and loving men (something noteworthy in most nations). The question arises whether South Africans can identify with this ideology and whether the packaging of behaviours and values as South African will make them more inclined to identify with it in future, Hall (Hall et al., 1992: 297) certainly felt that national cultures are not as unified as their representations portray them to be so it is likely that many in South Africa would not, at least without convincing, agree with the values espoused in the film. The opening of the South African identity simultaneously creates new opportunity for expression and dulls the potency of the resulting stories/characters due to polysemy. The perceived South Africannes of both films helped them enjoy success and (presumably in the case of the newer film) affect culture (especially national culture) and yet Mapantsula (1988) and Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) are both significantly influenced by foreign films. As Modisane (2010: 145) pointed out Mapantsula (1988) is made in the style of the gangster genre, and the cultures South African gangsters it depicts are also influenced by the American films it mimics, Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) has been identified by several commentators including Matjuda (2016: 4) as being influenced by Sex In The City, this influence that there are elements (perhaps even inscrutable ones) in both films which are muddying an honest depiction of South African values and ideologies. This essay would be remiss in exploring the nature of these foreign elements, the fact is that these two films are still part of what Hall (Hall et al., 1992: 293) called the narrative of the nation and are part what give meaning to the collective identity of South Africa (for better or worse) and the fact that in less than thirty years the way we frame our city and typify its heroes has changed so much is certainly an opportunity for young filmmakers created by the new South Africa.
5. NEW VOICES
As discussed above the post-apartheid state of affairs has allowed for filmmakers to tell stories that were previously forbidden or marginalised. But Mapantsula (1988) is already an example of a step in this direction because it showcased township life which was heavily censored by the publication control act before 199 (Botha, 1995: 6). Louw (2004: 88) advocated for a balance of Unity and diversity in representation, this can be understood as something that would help develop a more unified common manner of address for national cinema which audiences could become familiar with giving a chance for its later expansion; there’s an argument to be made that this would happen naturally as people use film to define their histories as Botha (1995: 1) said that they would. But Balance is not the problem because in terms of feature film exhibition South Africa is not using its post-apartheid opportunity to tell new stories. Majority of the films are in Afrikaans (NFVF, 2015: 2), the most profitable genre is action (NFVF, 2015: 4), and the audience is tired of the stolid Apartheid tales, crime dramas, and general poverty and politics which keep getting thrown at them (Blignau 2016: 15). Pressure due to funding (discussed below) and the comparative success of American films (which make up the entire top 10 all-inclusive RSA top grossers list) according to the NFVF (2015: 2). The two films (more so the younger of them) centring this discussion are examples of what Maingard (2007: 13) noticed, which is how South African producers are trying to make the same kinds of films as Americans and target them at a more upmarket audience in an attempt to be profitable. This means that innovative stories do not get made and stories with featuring interesting perspectives marginalise those perspectives Terence Bridgett is cast as a flamboyant gay man as he has been many times but the film does not explore his (gay) perspective or even his character beyond a few one liners. Commercially oriented films similar to Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) appear as though they will continue to grow in success but Avante Garde films do not have an audience in RSA therefore relying on foreign markets for earnings (Bernink 2000: 74); furthermore as discussed towards the end the developments being made in other formats will soon begin making theatrical released features less relevant (unless they improve). There are many films being made by the repressed and previously excluded sub-cultures of South Africa as Botha (2007: 34) hints at but these films struggle to make a broad cultural impact because they do not receive the opportunity for wide distribution (exhibition/distribution is discussed more below).
6. LIMITED FUNDING
The tax haven era where fraud was acceptable because it was against the regime is long over and the state of funding is very different in contemporary South Africa, usually it is a hassle and a hindrance for local filmmakers. The NFVF was founded in 1999 with the long term objective of making the South African film industry financially stable and internationally competitive (Botha, 2007: 34). But as discussed earlier the number of locally produced films is very low (so is market share) and the highest earning film since the end of apartheid was made by Leon Schuster who was already making films when Mapantsula (1988) came out (signalling a lack of transformation). According to Botha (2007: 32) there were many involved with the founding of the NFVF who believed funding for films should be dispensed solely based on commercial success but nonetheless there have been very few South African films which have made large amount of money (NFVF, 2015: 2). On the other hand there are also smaller producers chiming about how the NFVF’s rebate structure is only accessible for productions with bigger budgets (Bernink, 2000: 75). The film industry continues to be profitable (NFVF, 2015: 1) and the government has according to Botha (2007:43) realised long ago the huge potential for revenue and job creation found in film. Perhaps it continues to be so difficult to find a model that allows for transformation and more stable consistently profitable production is because of what Bernink (2000: 70) but it is doubtful because even he acknowledged at that time that this was changing. The Co-production treaties which South Africa has sought in an attempt to emulate other countries (Maingard, 2007: 12) may be doing more to hurt the film industry than can be discerned on a bank balance because the phenomena Bernink (2000: 71) observed of South Africans being treated as second class citizens on sets with foreigners is still prevalent and bad for learning and confidence. As white filmmakers continue to get NFVF funding more often than black ones people (especially black people) avoid filmmaking because they believe they will not be able to earn a decent living; and the majority of directors already in the business including the dare forced to straddle the worlds of documentary, film and television to get enough work (Botha, 2007: 14). Thabang moleya who directed Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) said that he spends most of his time doing adverts (Between 10and5, 2015). At the end of the day the only way for films to make their money back is if people watch them.
7. BOX OFFICE AND AUDIENCES
One of the reasons why many Afrikaans films are made is that they have a more stable audience which Van Schalkwyk (2013: 4) says they developed with the help of Afrikaans television stations such as KykNet which take full advantage of their stake in Afrikaans filmmaking. Whilst Happiness Is a Four-Letter Word (2016) was a welcome outlier most South African films (especially those not in Afrikaans) will struggle to convince enough people after the ticket price increase to journey to one of the 70 cinema complexes in metropolitan areas especially when market factors (including the NFVF policy, and the exhibition situation discussed below) are limiting the kinds of South African films available. It is not very surprising then that Botha (2007: 42) identified audience development will become more and more important especially after he points out that only 5 million people (close to 10% of the population) make up the cinema going public. It is however a positive that the NFVF (2015: 2) lists earnings for local films as continuing to improve year on year usually at more than 20%.
8. EXHIBITION
The majority of South African filmmakers continue to enjoy a strained relationship with the nation’s two biggest distributors (Ster Kinekor and Nu Metro). Blignau (2016: 14) recounts how the producer of Tell Me Sweet Something (2015) had to battle with Ster Kinekor to keep the film on at the end of its already satisfactory run due to the impressive audience demand and states that this helped pave the way for Happiness Is A Four Letter Word (2016). But the way was not well paved because it was only after there was more audience outcry (and the film having already debuted at number 3 and made around R10 million) that the number of theatres screening the film was increased (Blignau, 2016: 15). South African films already compete on an uneven field with American films which as Botha (2007:43) pointed out have incomparable advertising budgets and yet suffer the double discrimination of either being excluded for being too Avante Garde or being given short theatre runs because American films are historically more profitable. Already limited to the section of the public which can afford to visit a cinema South African films are pressured by the funding and market situation as well as the difficulty of exhibition, both Bernink (2000:85) and Botha (2007: 33) believed that this kind of climate negatively affects the quality and cultural vale of the films produced.
9. RACE
Jacobs (2004: 69) made it clear that no significant study of the film industry in South Africa could ignore the inequality in South African society, it is certainly true that despite many post-apartheid films being about the lives of black people as Botha (2007: 39) pointed there is still as Louw (2004: 87) noticed a lack of black voices in the South African film and television industry. One of the contributors to the current tension is the long history of racial inequality, during which the majority of films were being created by white people funded by the government (Botha, 2007: 91) Jacobs (2004: 69) elaborated on his ideas by discussing how even though democracy has given more political power to black people it has not afforded them entry into the economic, symbolic and intellectual spheres as yet, so it is problematic that the same people who control the market also bestow the accolades because black and independent producers do not have the connection which white people often have and are therefore prone to being excluded. Race is not the focus of this essay but even these tensions could in some way serve to fuel the creativity needed to create a future for the industry.
10. FUTURE
Short Films and new technology are giving people experience and opportunity, they can be screened on television (Botha, 1995: 7), at festivals Kruger (2006:152) or viewed on the internet. Kruger (2006: 152), Botha (2007: 36), and Maingard (2007: 12) have all spoken fondly about the resurgence of short filmmaking in South Africa which is according to Kruger providing more nuanced and relatable versions of the city (Johannesburg), the nation and its values (heroes); Botha simply spoke of it effusively whilst Maingard pointed out that it has been a useful format for developing young filmmakers’ experience. Even Happiness Is a Four Letter Word (2016) which according to Blignau (2016: 5) made over R13 million at the box office will benefit from the reach that is possible with DSTV Box Office (Makhale, 2016: 3). Keeping in mind that there are over 26.8 million internet users in South Africa (about 50% of the population) who are spending on average 3 hours on social media (Shezi, 2016: 1) and because of the limited number of screens so it is possible that for young or smaller budget filmmakers getting recognition on curating sites such as AfrolandTV and then Crossing over to VOD platforms like Ibioskop (designed to capitalise on free wifi at Taxi ranks), and then perhaps Showmax may be the future for filmmaking that can have a stable audience which includes a broader section of the population and makes more innovative content. As Umkhungo (2010) which has 65 000 views and The Nudist (2016) which has 19 000 views prove, Short films have already been a tool for both established and novice filmmakers of all races in South Africa and has been the format of many local stories deemed unfeasible by the traditional structures to a certain degree of success (seeing as how a big film like Happiness Is A Four-Letter Word (2016) was seen by about 50 000 people) ; post-apartheid South Africa has offered a lot of opportunities and challenges to work with but if VOD makes successful short film work profitable it would help accelerate the slow progress which is being made in the industry.
11. CONCLUSION
There is currently slow growth and there is an opportunity for faster growth through digital exhibition going forward, many innovative stories are being produced and the funding situation will improve because audience response continues to climb slowly but predictably, it can therefore be determined that by participating in reinventing the national identity and valuing film despite policy shortfalls both the post-apartheid society and government have given contemporary South African filmmakers a good & unique platform. National Identity, Stories, Funding, Audiences, Exhibition and race were all looked at in the context of two films on the opposite side of the 1994 election (Mapantsula (1988) about Panic the freedom fighter and Happiness Is A Four Letter Word (2016) about the Nandi who has it all.) to develop an understanding of the state and future of the South African film industry and, austerely, make this assertion.
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